Transform Your Smile at Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center
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Transforming your smile can seem like a daunting task, but at the Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center, its more than just a possibility-its a reality! Whether you're looking to brighten your smile, straighten your teeth, or undergo a complete smile makeover, the experts at the center are equipped to help you achieve the smile youve always dreamed of.
When you first visit the Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center, the friendly staff makes you feel welcome from the moment you step through the door.
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Its their commitment to patient care and comfort that sets them apart from others. The initial consultation typically involves a detailed discussion about your dental history and your aesthetic goals. Artificial This personalized approach ensures that every treatment plan is tailored specifically to your needs and expectations.
One of the most popular services offered by the center is teeth whitening. Over time, factors like coffee, tea, and certain medications can stain teeth, leaving them looking less than their best.
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Esthetics The Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center uses state-of-the-art whitening techniques that can dramatically brighten your smile in just one session.
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Many patients see noticeable results immediately, which is incredibly satisfying.
For those needing more extensive corrections, porcelain veneers are another option.
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These thin pieces of porcelain are crafted to fit perfectly over your existing teeth, providing a new, improved look. ResultingBalance They can fix issues such as chips, gaps, or uneven teeth. Applying veneers is an art, and the skilled dentists at the center are adept at shaping these fixtures to look natural and appealing.
Orthodontics have also come a long way in recent years, and the Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center stays on the cutting edge of these advancements. Options like Invisalign offer a way to straighten teeth without the inconvenience and aesthetic impact of traditional metal braces.
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These clear aligners are virtually invisible and can be removed for eating and brushing, making them a popular choice among adults who want to correct their smiles discreetly.
Possibly, what's most important is how the team handles each case with utmost care. They understand that every small detail counts towards making your smile not just good, but great. Comprehensive smile enhancement services are provided at Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center focused on delivering personalized treatments that ensure both comfort and long-lasting smile results.. Aesthetics However, they also maintain a realistic outlook on what can be achieved through cosmetic dentistry, ensuring that your expectations are met realistically.
In conclusion, the Des Moines Cosmetic Dentistry Center is not just about providing treatments. Its about transforming lives through beautiful smiles.
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With a team of highly skilled professionals and a range of advanced techniques at their disposal, they are well-equipped to help you achieve the smile you have always wanted. Why wait any longer to start your journey towards a brighter, more confident you?
Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth. It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the mouth, most commonly focused on dentition (the development and arrangement of teeth) as well as the oral mucosa.[2] Dentistry may also encompass other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint. The practitioner is called a dentist.
The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization, with the earliest evidence dating from 7000 BC to 5500 BC.[3] Dentistry is thought to have been the first specialization in medicine which has gone on to develop its own accredited degree with its own specializations.[4] Dentistry is often also understood to subsume the now largely defunct medical specialty of stomatology (the study of the mouth and its disorders and diseases) for which reason the two terms are used interchangeably in certain regions. However, some specialties such as oral and maxillofacial surgery (facial reconstruction/OMFS) may require both medical and dental degrees to accomplish.
The modern movement of evidence-based dentistry calls for the use of high-quality scientific research and evidence to guide decision-making such as in manual tooth conservation, use of fluoride water treatment and fluoride toothpaste, dealing with oral diseases such as tooth decay and periodontitis, as well as systematic diseases such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease, cancer, autoimmune diseases, and HIV/AIDS which could also affect the oral cavity. Other practices relevant to evidence-based dentistry include radiology of the mouth to inspect teeth deformity or oral malaises, haematology (study of blood) to avoid bleeding complications during dental surgery, cardiology (due to various severe complications arising from dental surgery with patients with heart disease), etc.
The term dentistry comes from dentist, which comes from French dentiste, which comes from the French and Latin words for tooth.[5] The term for the associated scientific study of teeth is odontology (from Ancient Greek: ὀδούς, romanized: odoús, lit.'tooth') – the study of the structure, development, and abnormalities of the teeth.
Dentistry usually encompasses practices related to the oral cavity.[6] According to the World Health Organization, oral diseases are major public health problems due to their high incidence and prevalence across the globe, with the disadvantaged affected more than other socio-economic groups.[7]
By nature of their general training, dentists, without specialization, can carry out the majority of dental treatments such as restorative (fillings, crowns, bridges), prosthetic (dentures), endodontic (root canal) therapy, periodontal (gum) therapy, and extraction of teeth, as well as performing examinations, radiographs (x-rays), and diagnosis. Dentists can also prescribe medications used in the field such as antibiotics, sedatives, and any other drugs used in patient management. Depending on their licensing boards, general dentists may be required to complete additional training to perform sedation, dental implants, etc.
Irreversible enamel defects caused by an untreated celiac disease. They may be the only clue to its diagnosis, even in absence of gastrointestinal symptoms, but are often confused with fluorosis, tetracycline discoloration, acid reflux or other causes.[8][9][10] The National Institutes of Health include a dental exam in the diagnostic protocol of celiac disease.[8]
Dentists also encourage the prevention of oral diseases through proper hygiene and regular, twice or more yearly, checkups for professional cleaning and evaluation. Oral infections and inflammations may affect overall health, and conditions in the oral cavity may be indicative of systemic diseases, such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease or cancer.[6][8][11][12] Many studies have also shown that gum disease is associated with an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease, and preterm birth. The concept that oral health can affect systemic health and disease is referred to as "oral-systemic health".
A sagittal cross-section of a molar tooth; 1: crown, 2: root, 3: enamel, 4: dentin and dentin tubules, 5: pulp chamber, 6: blood vessels and nerve, 7: periodontal ligament, 8: apex and periapical region, 9: alveolar boneEarly dental chair in Pioneer West Museum in Shamrock, Texas, U.S.
Studies show that dentists who graduated from different countries,[16] or even from different dental schools in one country,[17] may make different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists that graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend the removal of asymptomatic impactedthird molar (wisdom teeth) more often than dentists that graduated from Latin American or Eastern European dental schools.[18]
In the United Kingdom, the first dental schools, the London School of Dental Surgery and the Metropolitan School of Dental Science, both in London, opened in 1859.[19] The British Dentists Act 1878 and the 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners.[20][21] However, others could legally describe themselves as "dental experts" or "dental consultants".[22] The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practising dentistry.[23] The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practising illegally.[20] Dentists in the United Kingdom are now regulated by the General Dental Council.
Dentists in many countries complete between five and eight years of post-secondary education before practising. Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree. In a few countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least four years of postgraduate study;[24]Dental degrees awarded around the world include the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) in North America (US and Canada), and the Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Baccalaureus Dentalis Chirurgiae (BDS, BDent, BChD, BDSc) in the UK and current and former British Commonwealth countries.
All dentists in the United States undergo at least three years of undergraduate studies, but nearly all complete a bachelor's degree. This schooling is followed by four years of dental school to qualify as a "Doctor of Dental Surgery" (DDS) or "Doctor of Dental Medicine" (DMD). Specialization in dentistry is available in the fields of Anesthesiology, Dental Public Health, Endodontics, Oral Radiology, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine, Orofacial Pain, Pathology, Orthodontics, Pediatric Dentistry (Pedodontics), Periodontics, and Prosthodontics.[25]
Many countries require licensed dentists to undertake continuing education or continuing professional development (CE/CPD) after graduation. These structured activities help maintain clinical competence, support patient safety, and keep practitioners up to date with current standards of care, with government regulators typically specifying minimum hours or points per cycle and mandating core topics such as infection control, radiography, and medical emergencies.[26]
Some dentists undertake further training after their initial degree in order to specialize. Exactly which subjects are recognized by dental registration bodies varies according to location. Examples include:
Anesthesiology[27] – the specialty of dentistry that deals with the advanced use of general anesthesia, sedation and pain management to facilitate dental procedures.
Cosmetic dentistry – focuses on improving the appearance of the mouth, teeth and smile.
Forensic odontology – the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity.
Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics – the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.
Oral and maxillofacial pathology – the study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases.
Periodontology (also called periodontics) – the study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical) as well as placement and maintenance of dental implants
Some prosthodontists super-specialize in maxillofacial prosthetics, which is the discipline originally concerned with the rehabilitation of patients with congenital facial and oral defects such as cleft lip and palate or patients born with an underdeveloped ear (microtia). Today, most maxillofacial prosthodontists return function and esthetics to patients with acquired defects secondary to surgical removal of head and neck tumors, or secondary to trauma from war or motor vehicle accidents.
Sports dentistry – the branch of sports medicine dealing with prevention and treatment of dental injuries and oral diseases associated with sports and exercise.[28] The sports dentist works as an individual consultant or as a member of a sports medicine team.
A wealthy patient falling over because of having a tooth extracted with such vigour by a fashionable dentist, c. 1790. History of Dentistry.Farmer at the dentist, Johann Liss. While distracted his money bag is emptied. c. 1616–17
Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities).[29] An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry,[30] although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools.[31][32]
In Italy evidence dated to the Paleolithic, around 13,000 years ago, points to bitumen used to fill a tooth[33] and in Neolithic Slovenia, 6500 years ago, beeswax was used to close a fracture in a tooth.[34] The Indus valley has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC, during the Stone Age.[35] The Neolithic site of Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan's south western province of Balochistan) indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead-crafters.[3] The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago.[36] Dentistry was practised in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had a dental abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC.[37] The practice of dentistry dates back thousands of years, with evidence of dental procedures such as tooth extraction and fillings found in ancient civilizations like the Egyptians and the Greeks. One notable historical figure is Pierre Fauchard, often referred to as the 'father of modern dentistry,' who wrote the first comprehensive book on the subject in 1728.
An ancient Sumerian text describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries.[38] Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the Homeric Hymns,[39] and as late as the 14th century AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay.[40]
Recipes for the treatment of toothache, infections and loose teeth are spread throughout the Ebers Papyrus, Kahun Papyri, Brugsch Papyrus, and Hearst papyrus of Ancient Egypt.[41] The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, discusses the treatment of dislocated or fractured jaws.[41][42] In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment.[43] Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics.[44] However, it is possible the prosthetics were prepared after death for aesthetic reasons.[41]
Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws.[45] Use of dental appliances, bridges and dentures was applied by the Etruscans in northern Italy, from as early as 700 BC, of human or other animal teeth fastened together with gold bands.[46][47][48] The Romans had likely borrowed this technique by the 5th century BC.[47][49] The Phoenicians crafted dentures during the 6th–4th century BC, fashioning them from gold wire and incorporating two ivory teeth.[50] In ancient Egypt, Hesy-Ra is the first named "dentist" (greatest of the teeth). The Egyptians bound replacement teeth together with gold wire. Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents.[51] The earliest dental amalgams were first documented in a Tang dynasty medical text written by the Chinese physician Su Kung in 659, and appeared in Germany in 1528.[52][53]
During the Islamic Golden Age dentistry was discussed in several famous books of medicine such as The Canon in medicine written by Avicenna and Al-Tasreef by Al-Zahrawi who is considered the greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages.[54] Avicenna said that jaw fracture should be reduced according to the occlusal guidance of the teeth; this principle is still valid in modern times. Al-Zahrawi invented over 200 surgical tools that resemble the modern kind.[55]
Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth which alleviated pain and associated chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac most probably invented the dental pelican[56] (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used to perform dental extractions up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key[57] which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 19th century.[58]
The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530,[45] and the first dental textbook written in English was called "Operator for the Teeth" by Charles Allen in 1685.[21]
In the United Kingdom, there was no formal qualification for the providers of dental treatment until 1859 and it was only in 1921 that the practice of dentistry was limited to those who were professionally qualified. The Royal Commission on the National Health Service in 1979 reported that there were then more than twice as many registered dentists per 10,000 population in the UK than there were in 1921.[59]
A microscopic device used in dental analysis, c. 1907
It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. The English physician Thomas Browne in his A Letter to a Friend (c. 1656 pub. 1690) made an early dental observation with characteristic humour:
The Egyptian Mummies that I have seen, have had their Mouths open, and somewhat gaping, which affordeth a good opportunity to view and observe their Teeth, wherein 'tis not easie to find any wanting or decayed: and therefore in Egypt, where one Man practised but one Operation, or the Diseases but of single Parts, it must needs be a barren Profession to confine unto that of drawing of Teeth, and little better than to have been Tooth-drawer unto King Pyrrhus, who had but two in his Head.
The French surgeon Pierre Fauchard became known as the "father of modern dentistry". Despite the limitations of the primitive surgical instruments during the late 17th and early 18th century, Fauchard was a highly skilled surgeon who made remarkable improvisations of dental instruments, often adapting tools from watchmakers, jewelers and even barbers, that he thought could be used in dentistry. He introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. He asserted that sugar-derived acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay.[60][61]
Panoramic radiograph of historic dental implants, made 1978
Fauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he invented many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern of the wires. Waxed linen or silk threads were usually employed to fasten the braces. His contributions to the world of dental science consist primarily of his 1728 publication Le chirurgien dentiste or The Surgeon Dentist. The French text included "basic oral anatomy and function, dental construction, and various operative and restorative techniques, and effectively separated dentistry from the wider category of surgery".[60][61]
A modern dentist's workspace
After Fauchard, the study of dentistry rapidly expanded. Two important books, Natural History of Human Teeth (1771) and Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Teeth (1778), were published by British surgeon John Hunter. In 1763, he entered into a period of collaboration with the London-based dentist James Spence. He began to theorise about the possibility of tooth transplants from one person to another. He realised that the chances of a successful tooth transplant (initially, at least) would be improved if the donor tooth was as fresh as possible and was matched for size with the recipient. These principles are still used in the transplantation of internal organs. Hunter conducted a series of pioneering operations, in which he attempted a tooth transplant. Although the donated teeth never properly bonded with the recipients' gums, one of Hunter's patients stated that he had three which lasted for six years, a remarkable achievement for the period.[62]
Major advances in science were made in the 19th century, and dentistry evolved from a trade to a profession. The profession came under government regulation by the end of the 19th century. In the UK, the Dentist Act was passed in 1878 and the British Dental Association formed in 1879. In the same year, Francis Brodie Imlach was the first ever dentist to be elected President of the Royal College of Surgeons (Edinburgh), raising dentistry onto a par with clinical surgery for the first time.[63]
Long term occupational noise exposure can contribute to permanent hearing loss, which is referred to as noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and tinnitus. Noise exposure can cause excessive stimulation of the hearing mechanism, which damages the delicate structures of the inner ear.[64] NIHL can occur when an individual is exposed to sound levels above 90 dBA according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Regulations state that the permissible noise exposure levels for individuals is 90 dBA.[65] For the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), exposure limits are set to 85 dBA. Exposures below 85 dBA are not considered to be hazardous. Time limits are placed on how long an individual can stay in an environment above 85 dBA before it causes hearing loss. OSHA places that limitation at 8 hours for 85 dBA. The exposure time becomes shorter as the dBA level increases.
Within the field of dentistry, a variety of cleaning tools are used including piezoelectric and sonic scalers, and ultrasonic scalers and cleaners.[66] While a majority of the tools do not exceed 75 dBA,[67] prolonged exposure over many years can lead to hearing loss or complaints of tinnitus.[68] Few dentists have reported using personal hearing protective devices,[69][70] which could offset any potential hearing loss or tinnitus.
There are various chemical hazards from disinfection and dental materials, that lead to allergens from compounds like mercury, methacrylate, and nickel.[71][72][73]
Chemical disinfectants are necessary in a dental practice to prevent infection and contamination between patients. As a consequence, it introduces many chemical and occupational hazards. The most commonly used active ingredients in disinfection include alcohol, ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) solution, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, and glutaraldehyde.[74] In terms of surface-disinfection, workers are especially exposed to agents like aldehydes and quaternary-ammonium compounds via inhalation or physical contact.[75] This may result in allergies, due to lack of adequate ventilation and prolonged exposure. Research shows that around 10.9% of dental professionals may test positive for an allergic reaction to glutaraldehyde, compared to 2% in non-dental control subjects.[76] Additionally, frequent use of disinfectants may result in more respiratory symptoms in dental workers as well as worsened asthma control.[77]
It is essential to implement controls within dental clinics to reduce occupational exposure to these chemical hazards from disinfectants. In terms of engineering, using alternative and less sensitive chemicals as well as maintaining proper ventilation systems within the clinic will help reduce the amount of airborne chemicals. Having a safety data sheet, regular training on chemical safety, appropriate response equipment, and conducting assessments of workplace safety are all recommended administrative controls to minimize exposure.[78] Wearing full personal protective equipment reduces the occurrence of symptoms like burning sensation in eyes, dry cough, skin dermatitis, and respiratory irritation to chemical disinfectants.[79] Therefore, it is vital as a last form of defense that dental professionals wear gloves, gowns, masks, and eye protection when using disinfectant.[80] The application of these engineering techniques, administrative protocols, and personal protection are standard industrial hygiene practices to keep dental professionals safe while keeping the work environment clean.
Pre-capsulated dental amalgam used for restorative procedures, containing approximately 50% elemental mercury.
Elemental mercury makes up approximately 50% of conventional dental amalgam and can release toxic vapor during both placement and removal procedures.[81] Dental amalgam is a restorative material used for filling cavities caused by tooth decay. It is composed of a mixture of metals, approximately 50% of which is elemental mercury (Hg⁰) combined with an alloy powder containing silver, tin, copper, and other trace metals.[81] Mercury serves as a binding agent amalgamates the alloy particles into a durable, moldable mass. Prolonged or repeated exposure to these vapors has been associated with adverse effects on the nervous system and kidneys. Chronic exposure to mercury vapor has been associated with neurological, renal, and immunological effects, as mercury has a high affinity for nervous tissue and the kidneys. Symptoms of overexposure may include tremors, memory impairment, fatigue, and mood changes.[82][83]
Methyl methacrylate is an acrylic resin used in restorative and prosthetic dentistry, especially in dentures, temporary crowns, and retainers. Exposure can occur by inhalation of vapors through grinding or polymerization during dental procedures or by skin contact with uncured materials.[84] Short-term exposure can lead to eye, skin, and respiratory irritation, and long-term exposure can cause occupational asthma or allergic contact dermatitis.[85] One cross-sectional study discovered that dental assistants with high exposure to methacrylate vapors had increased odds of asthma and nasal issues.[86] This study emphasizes the importance of understanding that methacrylate is a respiratory and dermal hazard in dentistry.[87]
Prevention measures to reduce exposure to methacrylate include local exhaust ventilation to capture aerosols, consistent air sampling, covered mixing systems, and proper personal protective equipment such as masks and gloves.[88] The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommends keeping methyl methacrylate concentrations below the recommended exposure limit of 100 ppm for an 8-hour time-weighted average.[89] Implementing safety measures to protect dental staff from hazards can be achieved by ventilation improvements and proper personal protective equipment to prevent them from respiratory irritation, asthma, and allergic contact dermatitis.
Nickel exposure in dentistry can primarily occur through the use of nickel-containing alloys like crowns, bridges, brackets, and orthodontic appliances.[90] However, according to recent studies, in people who are not sensitive to nickel, dental alloys release levels that are typically less harmful and regarded as biologically safe.[91]
There is a movement in modern dentistry to place a greater emphasis on high-quality scientific evidence in decision-making. Evidence-based dentistry uses current scientific evidence to guide decisions. It is an approach to oral health that requires the application and examination of relevant scientific data related to the patient's oral and medical health. Along with the dentist's professional skill and expertise, evidence-based dentistry allows dentists to stay up to date on procedures for patients to receive improved treatment. A new paradigm for medical education designed to incorporate current research into education and practice was developed to help practitioners provide the best care for their patients.[92] It was first introduced by Gordon Guyatt and the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada in the 1990s. It is part of the larger movement toward evidence-based medicine and other evidence-based practices, especially since a major part of dentistry involves dealing with oral and systemic diseases. Other issues relevant to the dental field in terms of evidence-based research and evidence-based practice include population oral health, dental clinical practice, tooth morphology etc.
Like other medical disciplines, dentistry is strongly influenced by the digital transformation of healthcare. Processes are changing fundamentally, affecting the effectiveness and accuracy of patient treatment.[93][94]
Various technologies are being used in dentistry, including computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems in combination with 3D printing, artificial intelligence (AI), and electronic health records.[95][96] The degree of implementation of such technologies varies significantly across dental practices.[97]
Research shows that larger dental centers are adopting digital solutions more rapidly. Younger dentists, as well as those who regularly participate in digital training programs, show a higher willingness to implement new technologies. However, financial constraints and the lack of comprehensive training opportunities for the digitalization of dentistry currently represent major barriers to implementation.[98]
A dental chair at the University of Michigan School of Dentistry
Dentistry is unique in that it requires dental students to have competence-based clinical skills that can only be acquired through supervised specialized laboratory training and direct patient care.[99] This necessitates the need for a scientific and professional basis of care with a foundation of extensive research-based education.[100] According to some experts, the accreditation of dental schools can enhance the quality and professionalism of dental education.[101][102]
^Whether dentists are referred to as "Doctor" is subject to geographic variation. For example, they are called "Doctor" in the US. In the UK, dentists have traditionally been referred to as "Mister" as they identified themselves with barber surgeons more than physicians (as do surgeons in the UK, see Surgeon#Titles). However more UK dentists now refer to themselves as "Doctor", although this was considered to be potentially misleading by the British public in a single report (see Costley and Fawcett 2010).
^The scope of oral and maxillofacial surgery is variable. In some countries, both a medical and dental degree is required for training, and the scope includes head and neck oncology and craniofacial deformity.
^ abc"Diagnosis of Celiac Disease". National Institute of Health (NIH). Archived from the original on 15 May 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.cite web: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^Estrella MR, Boynton JR (2010). "General dentistry's role in the care for children with special needs: a review". Gen Dent (Review). 58 (3): 222–29. PMID20478802.
^da Fonseca MA (2010). "Dental and oral care for chronically ill children and adolescents". Gen Dent (Review). 58 (3): 204–09, quiz 210–11. PMID20478800.
^Owen, Lorrie K., ed. (1999). Dictionary of Ohio Historic Places. Vol. 2. St. Clair Shores: Somerset. pp. 1217–1218.
^Mary, Otto (2017). Teeth: the story of beauty, inequality, and the struggle for oral health in America. New York: The New Press. p. 70. ISBN978-1-62097-144-4. OCLC958458166.
^"History". Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
^Yehuda, Zadik; Liran, Levin (January 2008). "Clinical decision making in restorative dentistry, endodontics, and antibiotic prescription". J Dent Educ. 72 (1): 81–86. doi:10.1002/j.0022-0337.2008.72.1.tb04456.x. PMID18172239.
^Yehuda, Zadik; Liran, Levin (April 2006). "Decision making of Hebrew University and Tel Aviv University Dental Schools graduates in every day dentistry—is there a difference?". J Isr Dent Assoc. 23 (2): 19–23. PMID16886872.
^Yehuda, Zadik; Liran, Levin (April 2007). "Decision making of Israeli, East European, and South American dental school graduates in third molar surgery: is there a difference?". J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 65 (4): 658–62. doi:10.1016/j.joms.2006.09.002. PMID17368360.
^Coppa, A.; et al. (2006). "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry". Nature. 440 (7085). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 755–756. doi:10.1038/440755a. ISSN0028-0836. PMID16598247.
^Bjørklund G (1989). "The history of dental amalgam (in Norwegian)". Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 109 (34–36): 3582–85. PMID2694433.
^Czarnetzki, A.; Ehrhardt, S. (1990). "Re-dating the Chinese amalgam-filling of teeth in Europe". International Journal of Anthropology. 5 (4): 325–332.
^Meri, Josef (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia (Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages). Psychology Press. ISBN978-0-415-96690-0.
^Friedman, Saul S. (2006). A history of the Middle East. Jefferson, N.C.: Mcfarland. p. 152. ISBN0-7864-5134-3.
^Gregory Ribitzky. "Pelican". Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
^Gregory Ribitzky. "Toothkey". Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
^Gregory Ribitzky. "Forceps". Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
^Stevens, M (1999). "Is someone listening to the din of occupational noise exposure in dentistry". RDH (19): 34–85.
^Merrel, HB (1992). "Noise pollution and hearing loss in the dental office". Dental Assisting Journal. 61 (3): 6–9.
^Wilson, J.D. (2002). "Effects of occupational ultrasonic noise exposure on hearing of dental hygienists: A pilot study". Journal of Dental Hygiene. 76 (4): 262–69. PMID12592917.
^Cohen, B. I.; Pagnillo, M. K.; Musikant, B. L.; Deutsch, A. S. (December 1998). "Formaldehyde evaluation from endodontic materials". Oral Health. 88 (12): 37–39. ISSN0030-4204. PMID10323136.
^Formicola, Allan J.; Bailit, Howard L.; Beazoglou, Tryfon J.; Tedesco, Lisa A. (February 2008). "The interrelationship of accreditation and dental education: history and current environment". Journal of Dental Education. 72 (2 Suppl): 53–60. doi:10.1002/j.0022-0337.2008.72.2_suppl.tb04480.x. ISSN0022-0337. PMID18250379.
Tooth whitening or tooth bleaching is the process of lightening the colour of human teeth.[1] Whitening is often desirable when teeth become yellowed over time for a number of reasons, and can be achieved by changing the intrinsic or extrinsic colour of the tooth enamel.[2] The chemical degradation of the chromogens within or on the tooth is termed as bleaching.[1]
Hydrogen peroxide (H 2O 2) is the active ingredient most commonly used in whitening products and is delivered as either hydrogen peroxide or carbamide peroxide.[1] Hydrogen peroxide is analogous to carbamide peroxide as it is released when the stable complex is in contact with water. When it diffuses into the tooth, hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxidising agent that breaks down to produce unstable free radicals. In the spaces between the inorganic salts in tooth enamel, these unstable free radicals attach to organic pigment molecules resulting in small, less heavily pigmented components.[3] Reflecting less light, these smaller molecules create a "whitening effect".[3]Peroxyacids are an alternative to hydrogen peroxide and also contribute to the breakdown of pigment molecules. There are different products available on the market to remove stains.[1] For whitening treatment to be successful, dental professionals (dental hygienist or dentist) should correctly diagnose the type, intensity and location of the tooth discolouration.[3] Time exposure and the concentration of the bleaching compound determines the tooth whitening endpoint.[1]
The perception of tooth colour is multi-factorial. Reflection and absorption of light by the tooth can be influenced by a number of factors, including specular transmission of light through the tooth, specular reflection at the surface, diffuse light reflection at the surface, absorption and scattering of light within the dental tissues, enamel mineral content, enamel thickness, dentine colour, the human observer, the fatigue of the eye, the type of incident light, and the presence of extrinsic and intrinsic stains.[4] Additionally, the perceived brightness of the tooth can change depending on the brightness and colour of the background.[4]
The combination of intrinsic colour and the presence of extrinsic stains on the tooth surface influence the colour and thus the overall appearance of teeth.[2] The scattering of light and absorption within enamel and dentine determine the intrinsic colour of teeth and because the enamel is relatively translucent, the dentinal properties can play a major role in determining the overall tooth colour.[4] On the other hand, extrinsic stain and colour is the result of coloured regions that have formed within the acquired pellicle on the enamel surface and can be influenced by lifestyle behaviours or habits.[2] For example, dietary intake of tannin-rich foods, poor tooth brushing technique, tobacco products, and exposure to iron salts and chlorhexidine can darken the colour of a tooth.[2]
With increasing age, teeth tend to grow darker in shade.[5] This can be attributed to secondary dentin formation and thinning of enamel due to tooth wear which contributes to a significant decrease in lightness and increase in yellowness.[5] Tooth shade is not influenced by gender or race.[5]
Tooth discolouration and staining is primarily due to two sources of stain: intrinsic and extrinsic (see Figure 2).[1] In essence, tooth whitening primarily targets those intrinsic stains in which cannot be removed through mechanics such as a debridement (clean) or prophylaxis, in the dental office.[6] Below explains in-depth the differences between the two sources of which contribute to such discolouration of the tooth's surface.
Figure 2. Examples of tooth staining. Extrinsic staining examples: A. Smoking; B. Wine stain; and C. Food stain. Intrinsic staining examples: D. Age yellowing; E. Decay; F. Orthodontic white spot lesion; G. Mild fluorosis; H. Amalgam restoration; I. Tetracycline stain; J. Genetic (amelogenesis imperfecta); K. and non-vital colouring.
Extrinsic staining, is largely due to environmental factors including smoking, pigments in beverages and foods, antibiotics, and metals such as iron or copper. Coloured compounds from these sources are adsorbed into acquired dental pellicle or directly onto the surface of the tooth causing a stain to appear.[7]
Dental plaque: Dental plaque is a clear biofilm of bacteria that naturally forms in the mouth, particularly along the gumline, and it occurs due to the normal development and defences of the immune system.[8] Although usually virtually invisible on the tooth surface, plaque may become stained by chromogenic bacteria such as Actinomyces species.[9] Prolonged dental plaque accumulation on the tooth surface can lead to enamel demineralisation and formation of white spot lesions which appear as an opaque milk-coloured lesion.[10] The acidic by-products of fermentable carbohydrates derived from high-sugar foods contribute to greater proportions of bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus in dental plaque. Higher consumption of fermentable carbohydrates will promote demineralisation and increase the risk of developing white spot lesions.[8]
Calculus: neglected plaque will eventually calcify, and lead to the formation of a hard deposit on the teeth, especially around the gumline. The organic matrix of dental plaque and calcified tissues undergo a series of chemical and morphological changes that lead to calcification of the dental plaque and therefore leading to the formation of calculus.[11] The color of calculus varies, and may be grey, yellow, black, or brown.[9] The colour of calculus depends on how long it has been present in the oral cavity for; it typically starts off yellow and over time the calculus will begin to stain a darker colour and become more tenacious and difficult to remove.
Tobacco: tar in the smoke from tobacco products (and also smokeless tobacco products) tends to form a yellow-brown-black stain around the necks of the teeth above the gumline.[9] The nicotine and tar in tobacco, combined with oxygen, turns yellow and over time will absorb into the pores of enamel and stain the teeth yellow. The dark brown to black stains along the gum line of the teeth are the result of the porous nature of calculus immediately picking up the stains from nicotine and tar.
Betel chewing.[12] Betel chewing produces blood-red saliva that stains the teeth red-brown to nearly black.[13] The extract gel of betel leaf contain tannin, a chromogenic agent that causes discolouration of the tooth enamel.[14]
Tannin is also present in coffee, tea, and red wine and produces a chromogenic agent that can discolor teeth.[15] Large consumptions of tannin-containing beverages stain the dental enamel brown due to the chromogenic nature.[16]
Certain foods, including curries and tomato-based sauces, can cause teeth staining.[17]
Certain topical medications: Chlorhexidine (antiseptic mouthwash) binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth.[18] Chlorhexidine mouthwash has a natural liking for sulphate and acidic groups commonly found in areas where plaque accumulates such as along the gumline, on the dorsum of the tongue and cavities. Chlorhexidine is retained in these areas and stain yellow-brown. The stains are not permanent and can be removed with proper brushing.[19]
Metallic compounds. Exposure to such metallic compounds may be in the form of medication or occupational exposure. Examples include iron (black stain), iodine (black), copper (green), nickel (green), and cadmium (yellow-brown).[20] Sources of exposure to metal include placing metal into the oral cavity, metal-containing dust inhalation, or oral administration of drugs. Metals can enter the bony structure of the tooth, causing permanent discolouration, or can bind to the pellicle causing surface stain.[19]
Extrinsic staining may be removed through various treatment methods:
Prophylaxis: dental prophylaxis includes the removal of extrinsic staining using a slow-speed rotary handpiece and a rubber cup with abrasive paste, mostly containing fluoride.[21] The abrasive nature of the prophy paste, as it is known, acts to remove extrinsic staining using the action of the slow-speed handpiece and the paste against the tooth. Adversely, the action of the rubber cup together with the abrasive nature of the paste, removes around one micron of enamel from the tooth surface every time a prophylaxis is performed. This method of stain removal may only take place in the dental office.
Micro-abrasion: allows a dental professional to make use of an instrument which emits a powder, water and compressed air to remove biofilm, and extrinsic staining. This stain removal method can only be undertaken in a dental office, not at home.
Toothpaste: there are many available on the market that implement both peroxide as well as abrasive particles, such as silica gel, to help remove extrinsic stains, while the peroxide acts on intrinsic staining. This method of stain removal may take place at home as well as in a dental office.
Intrinsic staining primarily occurs during the tooth development either before birth or at early childhood. Intrinsic stains are those that cannot be removed through mechanical measures such as debridement or a prophylactic stain removal. As the age of the person increases, the teeth can also appear yellower over time.[15] Below are examples of intrinsic sources of stains:
Tooth wear and aging: Tooth wear is a progressive loss of enamel and dentine due to tooth erosion, abrasion and attrition. As enamel wears down, dentine becomes more apparent and chromogenic agents are penetrated in the tooth more easily. The natural production of secondary dentine also gradually darkens teeth with age.[22]
Dental cavities (tooth decay):[12] The evidence regarding carious tooth discolouration is inconclusive, however the most reliable evidence suggests that carious lesion allows for exogenous agents to enter dentine and hence increased absorption of chromogenic agents causing discolouration to the tooth.[22]
Restorative materials: The materials used during root canal treatments, such as eugenol and phenolic compounds, contain pigment that stain dentine. Restorations using amalgam also penetrate dentine tubules with tin over time therefore causing dark stains to the tooth.[22]
Enamel hypoplasia: Enamel hypoplasia causes enamel to be thin and weak. It produces a yellow-brown discolouration and can also cause the enamel's smooth surface to be rough and pitted which causes the tooth to be susceptible to extrinsic staining, tooth sensitivity, malocclusion, and dental cavities.[23] The evidence regarding enamel hypoplasia is inconclusive, however the most likely cause is infection or trauma caused to the primary dentition. Disturbances to the developing tooth germ during neonatal and early childhood stages such as maternal vitamin D deficiency, infection, and medication intake can cause enamel hypoplasia.[22]
Pulpal hyperemia: Pulpal hyperemia refers to inflammation of a traumatised tooth which can be caused by a stimuli such as trauma, thermal shock, or dental cavities. Pulpal hyperemia is reversible[24] and produces a red hue seen initially after trauma which has the ability to disappear if the tooth becomes revascularized.[22]
Fluorosis:[20] Dental fluorosis causes enamel to become opaque, chalky white, and porous. The enamel can break down and cause the exposed subsurface enamel to become mottled and produce extrinsic dark brown-black stains.[25] Dental fluorosis occurs due to excessive ingestion of fluoride or overexposure to fluoride during the development of enamel which usually occurs between the ages of one and four. Fluoridated drinking water, fluoride supplements, topical fluoride (fluoride toothpastes), and formula prescribed for children can increase the risk of dental fluorosis. Fluoride is considered an important factor in the management and prevention of dental cavities, the safe level for daily fluoride intake is 0.05 to 0.07 mg/kg/day.[26]
Dentinogenesis imperfecta:[20] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a hereditary dentine defect, associated with osteogenesis imperfecta, which causes the tooth to become discoloured usually blue or brown in colour and translucent giving teeth an opalescent sheen.[22] The condition is autosomal dominant which means that the condition runs in the family.
Amelogenesis imperfecta:[20] The appearance of amelogenesis imperfecta depends on the type of amelogenesis, there are 14 different subtypes and can vary from the appearance of hypoplasia to hypomineralisation which can produce different appearances of enamel from white mottling to yellow brown appearances.[22]
Tetracycline and minocycline. Tetracycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic,[27] and its derivative minocycline is common in the treatment of acne.[28] The drug is able to chelate calcium ions and is incorporated into teeth, cartilage, and bone.[27] Ingestion during the years of tooth development causes yellow-green discoloration of dentine visible through the enamel which is fluorescent under ultraviolet light. Later, the tetracycline is oxidized and the staining becomes more brown and no longer fluoresces under UV light.[9][29]
Porphyria:[9] A rare metabolic disorder in which the body fails to adequately metabolise porphyrins, which leads to accumulation or excretion of porphyrins into teeth. The excretion of porphyrins produces purple-red pigments in teeth.[30]
Hemolytic disease of the newborn:[9] This disease occurs when a newborn's red blood cells are being attacked by antibodies from the mother caused by an incompatibility between the mother and baby's blood. This condition can produce green staining of teeth due to jaundice, which is an inability to excrete bilirubin properly.[31]
Root resorption:[32] Root resorption is clinically asymptomatic; however, it can produce a pink appearance at the amelocemental junction.[22]
Prior to proceeding to tooth whitening alternatives, it is advised that the patient comes into the dental office to have a comprehensive oral examination that consists of a full medical, dental, and social history. This will allow the clinician to see if there is any treatment that needs to be done such as restorations to remove cavities, and to assess whether or not the patient will be a good candidate to have the whitening done. The clinician would then debride (clean) the tooth surface with an ultrasonic scaler, hand instruments, and potentially a prophy paste to remove extrinsic stains as mentioned above. This will allow a clean surface for maximum benefits of whichever tooth whitening method the patient chooses.[6] Below will discuss the various types of tooth whitening methods including both internal application of bleaching and external application through the use of bleaching agents.
VITA classical A1-D4 shade guide arranged according to value
VITA classical A1-D4 shade guide arranged according to chroma; A: red-brown, B: red-yellow, C: grey, D: red-grey
Before the treatment, the clinician should examine the patient: taking a health and dental history (including allergies and sensitivities), observe hard and soft tissues, placement and conditions of restorations, and sometimes x-rays to determine the nature and depth of possible irregularities. If this is not completed prior to the whitening agents being applied to the tooth surface, excessive sensitivity and other complications may occur.
In office tooth whitening with laser light activation
The whitening shade guides are used to measure tooth colour. These shades determine the effectiveness of the whitening procedure, which may vary from two to seven shades.[34] These shades may be reached after a single in office appointment, or may take longer, depending on the individual. The effects of bleaching can last for several months, but may vary depending on the lifestyle of the patient. Consuming tooth staining foods or drinks that have a strong colour may compromise effectiveness of the treatment. These include food and drinks containing tannins such as; coffee, tea, red wines, and curry.
In-office bleaching procedures generally use a light-cured protective layer that is carefully painted on the gums and papilla (the tips of the gums between the teeth) to reduce the risk of chemical burns to the soft tissues. The bleaching agent is either carbamide peroxide, which breaks down in the mouth to form hydrogen peroxide, or hydrogen peroxide itself. The bleaching gel typically contains between 10% and 44% carbamide peroxide, which is roughly equivalent to a 3% to 16% hydrogen peroxide concentration. The legal percentage of hydrogen peroxide allowed to be given is 0.1–6%.[where?] Bleaching agents are only allowed to be given by dental practitioners, dental therapists, and dental hygienists.
Bleaching is least effective when the original tooth color is grayish and may require custom bleaching trays. Bleaching is most effective with yellow discolored teeth. If heavy staining or tetracycline damage is present on a patient's teeth, and whitening is ineffective (tetracycline staining may require prolonged bleaching, as it takes longer for the bleach to reach the dentine layer), there are other methods of masking the stain. Bonding, which also masks tooth stains, is when a thin coating of composite material is applied to the front of a person's teeth and then cured with a blue light. A veneer can also mask tooth discoloration.
In-chair whitening is faster and more effective in comparison to the take-home bleaching options.[medical citation needed] Some clinicians also make custom bleaching trays, which can take up to a week to create. After the whitening treatment is completed, the patient is able to use these trays for maintenance of their bleaching with at-home kits or for use with desensitising products.
Power or light-accelerated bleaching uses light energy which is intended to accelerate the process of bleaching in a dental office. Different types of energy can be used in this procedure, with the most common being halogen, LED, or plasma arc. Use of light during bleaching increases the risk of tooth sensitivity and may not be any more effective than bleaching without light when high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide are used.[35] A 2015 study showed that the use of a light activator does not improve bleaching, has no measurable effect, and rather is likely to increase the temperature of the associated tissues, resulting in damage.[36][37]
The ideal source of energy should be high energy to excite the peroxide molecules without overheating the pulp of the tooth.[38] Lights are typically within the blue light spectrum as this has been found to contain the most effective wavelengths for initiating the hydrogen peroxide reaction. A power bleaching treatment typically involves isolation of soft tissue with a resin-based, light-curable barrier, application of a professional dental-grade hydrogen peroxide whitening gel (25–38% hydrogen peroxide), and exposure to the light source for 6–15 minutes. Recent technical advances have minimized heat and UV emissions, allowing for a shorter patient preparation procedure.
For any whitening treatments, it is recommended that a comprehensive examination of the patient is done including the use of radiographs to aid in the diagnosis of the current condition of the mouth, including any allergies that may be present. The patient will need to have a healthy mouth and free of periodontal disease or cavities and to have had a debridement/clean done to remove any tartar or plaque build up.[39]
It is recommended to avoid smoking, drinking red wine, eating or drinking any deeply coloured foods after this as the teeth may stain considerably straight after treatment.
Internal bleaching is a process which occurs after a tooth has been endodontically treated. This means that the tooth will have had the nerve of the tooth extirpated or removed through a root canal treatment at the dentist or by a specialist endodontist. Internal bleaching is often sought after in teeth which have been endodontically treated as tooth discolouration becomes a problem due to the lack of nerve supply to that tooth. It is common to have this internal bleaching done on an anterior tooth (a front tooth that you can see when smiling and talking). A way around this is by sealing off the bleaching agent inside the tooth itself and replacing it every few weeks until the desired shade has been achieved. The amount of time between appointments varies from patient to patient and with operator preference until the desired shade has been achieved.[40] Even though this is a great option, the disadvantage of this treatment is a risk of internal root resorption of the tooth that is being internally bleached. This may not occur in every patient or every tooth, and its occurrence is difficult to determine prior to completing the treatment.[40]
At home tooth whitening products are available from dentists or 'over the counter' (OTC).[41] At home whitening methods include over-the-counter strips and gels, whitening rinses, whitening toothpastes, and tray-based tooth whiteners.[41] OTC products can be used for milder cases of tooth staining.[41] Home-based bleaching (following manufacturer's instructions) results in less tooth sensitivity than in-office bleaching.[42]
The plastic whitening strips contain a thin layer of peroxide gel and are shaped to fit the buccal/labial surfaces of teeth.[1] Many different types of whitening strips are available on the market, after being introduced in the late 1980s.[1] Specific whitening strip products have their own set of instructions however the strips are typically applied twice daily for 30 minutes for 14 days.[1] In several days, tooth colour can lighten by 1 or 2 shades.[1] The tooth whitening endpoint does depend on the frequency of use and ingredients of the product.[1]
Whitening gels are applied onto the tooth surface with a small brush.[1] The gels contain peroxide and are recommended to be applied twice a day for 14 days.[1] The tooth whitening endpoint like that of the whitening strips.[1]
Whitening rinses work by reaction of the oxygen sources such as hydrogen peroxide within the rinse and the chromogens on or within the tooth.[1] It is recommended to use twice a day, rinsing for one minute.[1] To see an improvement in shade colour, it can take up to three months.[1]
Whitening toothpastes differ from regular toothpastes in that they contain higher amounts of abrasives and detergents to be more effective at removing tougher stains.[1] Some whitening toothpastes contain low concentrations of carbamide peroxide or hydrogen peroxide which help lighten tooth colour however they do not contain bleach (sodium hypochlorite).[1] With continuity of use over time, tooth colour can lighten by one or two shades.[1]
Tray-based tooth whitening is achieved by wearing a fitted tray containing carbamide peroxide bleaching gel overnight or for two to four hours a day.[1] If manufacturer's instructions are followed, tooth whitening can occur within three days and lighten teeth by one or two shades.[1] This type of tooth whitening is available over-the-counter and professionally from an oral health professional.[1]
Baking soda is a safe, low abrasive, and effective stain removal and tooth whitening toothpaste.[43] Tooth whitening toothpaste that have excessive abrasivity are harmful to dental tissue, therefore baking soda is a desirable alternative.[43] To date, clinical studies on baking soda report that there have been no reported adverse effects.[43] It also contains acid-buffering components that makes baking soda biologically antibacterial at high concentrations and capable of preventing growth of Streptococcus mutans.[43] Baking soda might be useful for cavities-prone patients, as well as those who wish to have whiter teeth.[43]
Tooth decay. White-spot decalcification may be highlighted and become more noticeable directly following a whitening process, but with further applications the other parts of the teeth usually become more white and the spots less noticeable.
Active periapical pathology
Untreated periodontal disease
Pregnant or lactating women
Children under the age of 16. This is because the pulp chamber, or nerve of the tooth, is enlarged until this age. Tooth whitening under this condition could irritate the pulp or cause it to become sensitive. Younger people are also more susceptible to abusing bleaching.[45]
Persons with visible white fillings or crowns. Tooth whitening does not change the color of fillings and other restorative materials. It does not affect porcelain, other ceramics, or dental gold. However, it can slightly affect restorations made with composite materials, cements and dental amalgams. Tooth whitening will not restore color of fillings, porcelain, and other ceramics when they become stained by foods, drinks, and smoking, as these products are only effective on natural tooth structure. As such, a shade mismatch may be created as the natural tooth surfaces increase in whiteness and the restorations stay the same shade. Whitening agents do not work where bonding has been used and neither is it effective on tooth-colored filling materials. Other options to deal with such cases are the porcelain veneers or dental bonding.[46]
Some of the common side effects involved in teeth whitening are increased sensitivity of the teeth, gum irritation, and extrinsic teeth discolouration.[41]
The use of bleach with extremely low pH levels in the tooth whitening procedure may lead to hypersensitive teeth, as it causes the dentinal tubules to open.[47] Exposure to cold, hot, or sweet stimuli may further exacerbate the intensity of the hypersensitive response. Amongst those who receive in-office whitening treatment, between 67 and 78% of the individuals experience sensitivity after the procedure where hydrogen peroxide and heat is utilized.[48][49] Although it varies from person to person, sensitivity after whitening treatment can last up to 4–39 days.[50][51]
Potassium nitrate and sodium fluoride in toothpastes are used to ease discomfort following bleaching, however, there is no evidence to suggest that this is a permanent method to eradicate the issue of hypersensitivity.[52]
Hydrogen peroxide is an irritant and cytotoxic. Hydrogen peroxide with concentrations of 10% or higher can cause tissue damage, be corrosive to mucous membranes and cause burning sensation to the skin.[53] Chemical burns can commonly occur whilst bleaching, irritation and discolouration of the mucous membranes may occur if a high concentration of oxidising agent comes in to contact with unprotected tissue. Poorly fitting bleaching trays are amongst the most common reasons for chemical burns. The temporary burning induced by whitening treatments can be reduced by using custom-made plastic trays or nightguards provided by the dental professional. This prevents the leakage of solution onto the surrounding mucosa.[54]
Uneven results are quite common after bleaching. Consuming less foods and drinks that cause surface staining of teeth can contribute to attaining a good result from tooth whitening.
Nearly half the initial change in colour provided by an intensive in-office treatment (i.e., one hour treatment in a dentist's chair) may be lost in seven days.[55] Rebound is experienced when a large proportion of the tooth whitening has come from tooth dehydration (also a significant factor in causing sensitivity).[56] As the tooth rehydrates, tooth colour "rebounds", back toward where it started.[57]
Over-bleaching, more often known as the "bleached effect", occurs among treatments that promise a large change over a short period of time e.g., hours. Over-bleaching can emit a translucent and brittle appearance.[58]
Teeth enamel can have an adverse negative effect by whitening treatment.[59] Evidence from studies show that carbamide peroxide present in whitening gels can damage the enamel surface. Although this effect is not as damaging as phosphoric acid etch,[60] the increased irregularity of the teeth surface makes the teeth more susceptible to extrinsic staining, thus having an increased detrimental effect on the aesthetics. The increased porosity and changes in surface roughness may have an impact on the formation of supra- and subgingival plaque, thus increasing the adhesion of bacterial species such as Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus, significant contributors to dental cavities.[54]Dental restorations are susceptible to unacceptable colour change even when using the home-based systems.[1]
Intracoronal bleaching is a tooth whitening method that uses 30% more hydrogen peroxide. Such tooth whitening methods can weaken the mechanical properties of dentine and could potentially lead to severe tooth sensitivity.[61]
Dental restorations are susceptible to unacceptable colour change even when using the home-based systems.[1]
Ceramic crowns – aggressive bleaching can chemically react with ceramic crowns and reduce their stability.[1]
Dental amalgam – exposure to carbamide peroxide solutions increase mercury release for one to two days.[61][62] The release of amalgam components is said to be due to active oxidation. This increase in amalgam mercury release is proportional to the concentration of carbamide peroxide.[63]
Resin composite – bond strength between enamel and resin based fillings become weakened.[64] Many studies have found that 10–16% carbamide peroxide tooth bleaching gels (containing approximately 3.6–5.76% hydrogen peroxide) leads to an increase in the surface roughness and porosity of composite resins.[63] However, the saliva may exert a protective effect. In addition, changes in the reflectance of the composite have been analysed following whitening with high concentration (30–35%) hydrogen peroxide.[63] This suggests that tooth whitening negatively impacts composite resin restorations.[63]
Glass ionomer and other cements – studies suggest that solubility of these materials may increase.[65]
Bleachorexia is the term that is used to describe an individual that develops an unhealthy obsession with teeth whitening.[45] This condition is similar to body dysmorphic disorder. The characteristics of bleachorexia are the continuous use of whitening products even though the teeth cannot possibly become whiter, despite the provision of repeated treatment.[58] A person with bleachorexia will continually seek out for different whitening products, hence, it is recommended that a target shade is agreed upon before starting the treatment procedure to help with this problem.[58]
The use of personalised home whitening trays is a patient administered therapy that is prescribed and dispensed by a dentist.[66] Patients need to actively participate in their treatment and follow the guidelines given by the dentist accurately.[67] Erratic or inaccurate use of the bleaching trays could cause harm to the patient such as blistering or sensitivity of the teeth and the surrounding soft tissue.[68] Inconsistent use of the bleaching trays can lead to the slowing and irregularity of the whitening process.[69] Some patients with a substantial gag reflex may not be able to tolerate the trays and would need to consider other methods of teeth whitening.[67]
Hydrogen peroxide-based bleaching agents are always associated with Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The free radicals diffuse through the enamel and dentin and break down the color molecules, resulting in the perception of a whiter tooth color.[70] The downside is that these radicals have certain local harmful effects, such as enamel erosion, changes in the microhardness of the teeth, gum irritation, post-bleaching hypersensitivity, and burning sensations.[71] The following side effects are also known:
Even during treatment, there is often very painful sensitivity to the bleaching agent. Freshly treated teeth can be sensitive to sweets, acids, and temperature, which can be quite painful. However, these symptoms are usually temporary and subside within a few days after treatment.
The long-term effects of higher concentration bleaching agents (>6% H2O2 or equivalent) on the pulp, dentin, enamel, and oral soft tissues are not yet clarified. These bleaching agents are potentially harmful and should be used with caution only in dental practice.[72]
Bleaching can deplete minerals from the teeth, leading to demineralization and the temporary breakdown of the protein pellicle (the protective layer of the tooth).[73] This can result in more or less pronounced white spots, which usually normalize within days after treatment. Remineralization can be supported by special gels.
Bleaching can weaken the tooth structure. Internal bleaching can lead to tooth brittleness and root resorption.
Bleaching agents based on peroxycarboxylic acids (PAP) can be chosen as an effective vehicle for tooth whitening. PAP has proven to be almost harmless to enamel with a safe and reliable bleaching effect.[74] In the clinical application of PAP for tooth whitening, oxidation reactions also occur, and color molecules are bleached through chemical-physical processes. However, the reaction occurs without the formation of free radicals. This is the major and decisive difference, as free radicals are the main cause of tooth sensitivity and gum irritation in tooth whitening with hydrogen peroxide-based bleaching agents.[75]
Evidence suggests that hydrogen peroxide might act as a tumour promoter.[76] Although cervical root resorption is more evidently observed in thermocatalytic bleaching methods, intracoronal internal bleaching may also lead to tooth root resorption.[76] Moreover, severe damage to intracoronal dentine and tooth crown fracture can occur due to this bleaching method.[76]
However, the International Agency of Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that there is insufficient evidence to prove that hydrogen peroxide is a carcinogen to humans.[77] Recently, the genotoxic potential of hydrogen peroxide was evaluated. The results indicated that the oral health products that contain or release hydrogen peroxide up to 3.6% will not increase the cancerous risk of an individual,[78] hence, it is safe to use in moderation.
Despite achieving the results of treatment, stains can return within an initial couple of months of treatment. Various methods may be employed to prolong the treatment results, such as:[citation needed]
Brush or flush out mouth with water after eating and drinking
Floss to remove plaque and biofilms between the teeth
Take special care during the first 2 days – the first 24–48 hours after the whitening procedure is seen as the most crucial period in which you must protect for your teeth the most. Hence, it is vital that non-staining drinks or foods are eaten during this time as enamel is prone to adhere to stains.
Drink fluids that may cause staining through a straw
Depending on the method used to whiten the teeth, re-treatment every six months or after a year may be required. If an individual is a smoker or they consume beverages with the capacity to stain, regular re-treatments would be required.
Teeth whitening remedies have been present since ancient times. Despite seeming absurd, some methods were somewhat effective in their results.
Ancient Roman dentists believed in using urine with goat milk to make their teeth look whiter.[79][80][81] Pearly white teeth symbolized beauty and marked wealth. In the Auyrveda medicine system, oil pulling was used as an oral therapy. For this process today, swish coconut or olive oil in your mouth for up to 20 minutes each day. In the late 17th century, many people reached out to barbers, who used a file to file down the teeth before applying an acid that would, in fact, whiten the teeth. Although the procedure was successful, the teeth would become completely eroded and more prone to becoming decayed.[82]Guy de Chauliac suggested the following to whiten the teeth: "Clean the teeth gently with a mixture of honey and burnt salt to which some vinegar has been added."[83] In 1877, oxalic acid was proposed for whitening, followed by calcium hypochlorite.[83]
In the late 1920s, mouthwash containing pyrozone (ether peroxide) was found to reduce cavities while providing a whiter appearance to the teeth.[84] By 1940s and 1950s, ether and hydrogen peroxide gels were used to whiten vital teeth, whereas non-vital teeth were whitened using pyrozone and sodium perborate.[84]
In the late 1960s, Dr William Klusmeier, an Orthodontist from Fort Smith, Arkansas, introduced the custom tray bleaching. However, it was not until 1989 that Haywood and Heymann published an article in support of this method. Carbamide peroxide with a shelf life of one to two years, as opposed to hydrogen peroxide with a shelf life one to two months, was seen as a more stable agent for whitening teeth.[84]
Teeth whitening has become the most promoted and mentioned methodology in cosmetic dentistry. In excess of 100 million Americans brighten their teeth using different methods; spending $15 billion in 2010.[85] The US Food and Drug Administration only endorses gels that are under 6% hydrogen peroxide or 16% or less of carbamide peroxide. The Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety of the EU consider gels containing higher fixations can be dangerous.[citation needed]
As per European Council guidelines, only a certified dental professional can lawfully give tooth whitening products utilizing 0.1–6% hydrogen peroxide, provided the patient is 18 years of age or older.[86] In 2010, the UK General Dental Council became concerned of the "risk to patient safety from poor quality tooth whitening being carried out by untrained or poorly trained staff."[87] A public attitudes survey, conducted by the GDC, showed that 83% of people support "policies of regulating tooth whitening to protect patient safety and prosecuting illegal practice."[87] A group of dental professionals and associations called The Tooth Whitening Information Group (TWIG) was founded to advance protected and beneficial tooth whitening information and assistance to the general population. Reports can be made to the TWIG through their website with respect to any individual giving unlawful tooth whitening services, or if an individual has personally undergone treatment done by a non-dental professional.
In Brazil, all whitening items are classed as cosmetics (Degree II).[45] There are worries that this will increase abuse of whitening products and thus there have been calls for reanalysis.[45]
According to research, tooth whitening can produce positive changes in young participants' Oral Health Related Quality of Life (OHRQoL) in aesthetic areas such as smiling, laughing, and showing teeth without embarrassment. However, its main side-effect, tooth sensitivity, negatively affects quality of life.[88]
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^Seow, W. K. (1991). "Enamel hypoplasia in the primary dentition: a review". ASDC Journal of Dentistry for Children. 58 (6): 441–452. ISSN1945-1954. PMID1783694.
^ abSánchez, AR; Rogers RS, 3rd; Sheridan, PJ (October 2004). "Tetracycline and other tetracycline-derivative staining of the teeth and oral cavity". International Journal of Dermatology. 43 (10): 709–15. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02108.x. PMID15485524. S2CID23105719.cite journal: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Delgado, E; Hernández-Cott, PL; Stewart, B; Collins, M; De Vizio, W (2007). "Tooth-whitening efficacy of custom tray-delivered 9% hydrogen peroxide and 20% carbamide peroxide during daytime use: A 14-day clinical trial". Puerto Rico Health Sciences Journal. 26 (4): 367–72. PMID18246965.
^He, LB; Shao, MY; Tan, K; Xu, X; Li, JY (August 2012). "The effects of light on bleaching and tooth sensitivity during in-office vital bleaching: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Dentistry. 40 (8): 644–53. doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2012.04.010. PMID22525016.
^Leonard, R. H.; Haywood, V. B.; Phillips, C. (August 1997). "Risk factors for developing tooth sensitivity and gingival irritation associated with nightguard vital bleaching". Quintessence International (Berlin, Germany: 1985). 28 (8): 527–534. ISSN0033-6572. PMID9477880.
^Wang, Y; Gao, J; Jiang, T; Liang, S; Zhou, Y; Matis, BA (August 2015). "Evaluation of the efficacy of potassium nitrate and sodium fluoride as desensitising agents during tooth bleaching treatment-A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Dentistry. 43 (8): 913–23. doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2015.03.015. PMID25913140.
^Haywood, Van & Houck, V.M. & Heymann, H.O.. (1991). Nightguard vital bleaching: Effects of various solutions on enamel surface texture and color. Quintessence Int. 22. 775–782.
^ abRotstein, I; Mor, C; Arwaz, JR (1997). "Changes in surface levels of mercury, silver, tin, and copper of dental amalgam treated with carbamide peroxide and hydrogen peroxide in vitro". Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 83 (4): 506–509. doi:10.1016/s1079-2104(97)90154-2. PMID9127386.
^Hummert, TW; Osborne, JW; Norling, BK; Cardenas, HL (1993). "Mercury in solution following exposure of various amalgams to carbamide peroxides". Am J Dent. 6 (6): 305–309. PMID7880482.
^ abcdAttin, Thomas; Hannig, Christian; Wiegand, Annette; Attin, Rengin (November 2004). "Effect of bleaching on restorative materials and restorations--a systematic review". Dental Materials. 20 (9): 852–861. doi:10.1016/j.dental.2004.04.002. ISSN0109-5641. PMID15451241.
^Llena, Carmen; Villanueva, Alvaro; Mejias, Elena; Forner, Leopoldo (January 2020). "Bleaching efficacy of at home 16% carbamide peroxide. A long-term clinical follow-up study". Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry. 32 (1): 12–18. doi:10.1111/jerd.12560. ISSN1708-8240. PMID31904193.
^Ruchi Singhal, Ritu Namdev, Parul Singhal, Nisha Rajput, Saurabh Narang (2022-03-01), "Newer Technique of Extra-Coronal Bleaching with Sodium Perborate on Non-Pitted Fluorosis Stains in Permanent Anterior Teeth", The Journal of Clinical Pediatric Dentistry, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 112–118, doi:10.17796/1053-4625-46.2.4 (inactive 18 July 2025), ISSN1053-4628, PMID35533230citation: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Mozhgan Bizhang, Julia Domin, Gholamreza Danesh, Stefan Zimmer (2017), "Effectiveness of a new non-hydrogen peroxide bleaching agent after single use - a double-blind placebo-controlled short-term study", Journal of applied oral science: Revista FOB, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 575–584, doi:10.1590/1678-7757-2016-0463, ISSN1678-7765, PMC5804394, PMID29069156citation: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^SCCNFP (1999). Scientific Committee on Cosmetic Products and Non-Food Products intended for Consumers. Hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen peroxide releasing substances in oral health products. SCCNFP/0058/98. Summary on http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/sccp/out83_en.html and http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/sccp/out89_en.html(read 2002.31.10)
^Kothari, Siddharth; Gray, Andrew R.; Lyons, Karl; Tan, Xin Wen; Brunton, Paul A. (2019-05-01). "Vital bleaching and oral-health-related quality of life in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Dentistry. 84: 22–29. doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2019.03.007. ISSN0300-5712. PMID30904560. S2CID85496718.